Ethiopia Essay Example for Free

Ethiopia Essay Ethiopia is one of the oldest nations of this world, dating back to almost 3000 years BC. The recent history of Ethiopia proves that it is a land which is cursed with natural and human miseries. Its geographic position also underlies the miserable state of affairs that this country has been through in the recent past. Taking inspiration from the air of human freedom which blew over the world in the twentieth century, Ethiopia has witnessed a change from the Marxist form of authoritarian governance to a free, emocratic form. The penetration of western concepts of education, science and technology, which was very fast in other third world countries like India and South Korea, is very slow over here. Ethiopia is highly underdeveloped and one of the poorest country on this world because of its geographic position, natural circumstances and human mistakes. Ethiopia is the land where the oldest human ancestors, dating back to almost 5 million years, used to exist. Today, it is a land-locked nation surrounded by countries like Sudan n the west, Kenya in the south, Somalia in the east and Eritrea in the north. With a total land area of about 43. 5 thousand square miles, it has a population of about 75 million people, in 2005. Islam is the major religion followed by 45 to 50 percent of the population which has almost 9 ethnic groups and speaks more than 75 different languages. The literacy rate was 43% in 2003 and the GDP stood at $ 60. 34 billion. The per capita income was a meager $ 80 in 2005. Only 11% of the total land is arable, and Platinum, Potash, Copper, natural gas and some traces of gold are its natural resources. Its exports touched $ 612 million in 2005 against a huge import bill of $ 2. 72 billion in 2005. The major industries of Ethiopia are cement, textiles, beverages, chemicals, and metal processing. In telecommunications, Ethiopia has 435 thousand main line users, followed by about 97 thousand cell phone users and 75 thousand internet users in 2003. The total rail network was of 681 kms in 2004, and the total distance covered by the highways was bout 33 thousand kms. in 2002 ( Ethiopia ) The progress of any nation is dependent on its agriculture, industrial output, infrastructure development and education. A strong economy is the biggest sign of a healthy nation. The current status of Ethiopia, as revealed by the figures in the above paragraph, is really poor. This necessitates investigation of the recent past history of the nation, to judge upon the parameters which contributed to the current state of affairs. The recent history of Ethiopia reveals the political transition from a military uthoritarian rule to a democratic republic nation. It tells about the devastating famines and the wars with Eritrea and the prolonged border dispute with it, and the military confrontation with Somalia. In addition, Ethiopia witnessed frequent rebellions from within the country, demonstrating the high level of dissatisfaction of the people with the military ruler and his policies. The famine, the wars and the rebellions have resulted in loss of lives for millions of Ethiopians. This is the darkest spot on the recent history of Ethiopia. The major events in the recent history are briefly described in the following paragraphs. Famines : Ethiopia witnessed two devastating famines in 1984 and 2002. BBC cites the words of Prime Minister Zenavi, â€Å" If the famine of 1984 was a nightmare, then this will be too ghastly to contemplate†. The 1984 famine killed nearly one million people. Another famine, much worse than that of 1984, struck the nation in 2002. Zenavi revealed to the BBC that nearly 15 million people faced starvation, and the international Red cross estimated that $ 11 million were needed to aid the suffering people of Ethiopia in 2002. This BBC report also cites Georgia Shaver, the World Food Program Director in Ethiopia, saying that about 14 million people needed food across the six countries in South Africa, the same number needs food in just one country, Ethiopia. Prime Minister Zenavi admits that they do not have any system to store the rain water. In the same report, BBC also cites Andrew Pendleton, Advisor to Christian aid to Ethiopia, s saying that Ethiopia’s continuing foreign debt, which is almost 10% of the state’s revenues, is the biggest hurdle in its efforts to cope with the famines. ( Massive famine stalks Ethiopia) Ethiopia and Eritrea have been fighting for the past many decades. Eritrea gained its independence from Ethiopia in 1993, after a long guerrilla warfare. At this juncture, the border lines were never identified, marked or mapped. The dispute about the border resulted in frequent clashes, which heightened in 1998, resulting into a full fledged war or almost two years, till a peace treaty was signed between the two nations in 2000. This long, armed confrontation has claimed hundreds of thousands of lives on wither side, and ruptured the economies of both the nations. Almost 40 thousand soldiers have been killed in this war and armed troops to the number of 300 thousand remain engaged in guarding the 800 km border. All the civilians residing in the affected areas have fled, and both the armies are guarding empty villages. ( Pike John ) On the other hand, the warring factions of the Islamic fundamentalists have drawn attention from both Ethiopia and Eritrea. While Eritrea supports one faction with arms and troops, with an intention to prompt them to attack Ethiopia from its south east border, Ethiopia supports the other faction in all ways possible, to counter the move. (Pike John ) Such never ending warlike situations have taken a very heavy toll on the development of Ethiopia. The political status of Ethiopia has also undergone a sea-change in the recent past. In 1974, the Emperor was overthrown by a military coup, and Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam became country’s ruler in 1977. The policies of the military rule were widely unpopular and many rebellion groups became active in the country. These forces formed a coalition known as Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) which took control over the capital city of Addis Ababa on 28 May 1991. A transitional charter was approved in 1991, and since then Ethiopia is a democratic republic country. (History, politics, administration) The events of the recent history of Ethiopia prove that the country is hit with chronic problems, and options before the government are very few. The complexity of the situation created by these problems is so complex that a permanent solution seems impossible. The government is faced with political, military, geographic, and economic problems, the magnitude of which is mind blowing. The situation is not only tough, but seems to be so grim that only downward trend can be perceived with little or no hopes or improvement for a better future. The multiple characteristics of the problems, has almost ruptured the nation. It is beyond the scope of the government to handle the situation single handed. Ethiopia has been lucky to get the required aid from foreign countries, and international agencies. As a matter of fact, Ethiopia has been able to counter the problems , largely due to these foreign aid, which very often is generous also. Many agencies are functional in Ethiopia to help the local government and the local population. The military rule during the 1970s and 80s tried to revamp the economy by declaring radical measures. These measures vested total control of the economy in the hands of the state. Nationalization of all major industrial, financial and commercial companies took place in 1975. Villagization† was one more, most unpopular directive from the military ruler, under which people were compelled to move away from highland to lowland areas. The policy had to be abandoned in 1986. The democratic rulers were more sensible in their approach. Ever since it came into existence in 1991, it has been facing many serious challenges. Its first success is in offering political stability and forming strategies which appeal to the foreign help agencies. While no tangible results are seen at the ground level so far, the democratic government has demonstrated its resolve to fight with the chronic problems, and pursue the helping hands to get help. Today, many agencies are working in close co-ordination with the government to help implement the various strategies. The economy is still very ragile, and weak, the condition of people is still miserable, but the efforts put in by the government and the foreign agencies in the recent years, is likely to bring better results in the future. For example the schools and colleges established in the last ten years will present educated adults to the society after another 10 or 20 years. Strong development is not seen in any area not because the government or the people lack the will, but because of the enormity and complexity of the situation and the lack of resources to ackle them. The areas that need to be addressed on topmost priority are : 1. Food : Ethiopia needs to feed the millions of hungry people 2. Increase agricultural output: maybe by improvement in ways of farming. 3. Health care : Increase health care facilities to reach the remote areas also. 4. Water and irrigation : Water is a scarce commodity here, and technological advances have to be brought in to preserve water and utilize it appropriately. This is a very crucial sector which will help in fighting the devastating famines. 5. Reduction of poverty: In 2003, about 44% of the estimated 67 million people of Ethiopia lived below the poverty line, according to a World Bank report. ( Ethiopia) 6.  Strengthen the economy: By devising and effective implementation of schemes to increase the GDP and the Per Capita Income and decrease the huge gap between export and import bills. These are the areas where the state has been lacking, to a great extent. It has only made a beginning by devising plans and schemes in conjunction with foreign agencies. The role of the state in the development of Ethiopia is very limited, because the state treasury is always burdened with other issues, and has little or nothing to spare for the development projects. The UNDP example, cited below proves this point. One of the many sectors in which UNDP works in Ethiopia is poverty reduction. Agricultural development is a priority area in this program. It targets at : 1. Promotion of access and utilization of technological improvements in farming and up gradation of facilities for result oriented research. 2. Use of ICT for agricultural information management by establishing connectivity between federal and regional states. 3. Implement use of small scale irrigation. 4. Provide service to rural communities by effective implementation of small scale finance institutions. The following results were achieved : 1. Nearly 10,000 farmers and 4,000 farmers were trained on how to use the technologies in farming. On a national scale nearly 3. million farmers benefited and the agricultural yields were almost doubled in areas where the rainfall was adequate. 2. A study on national computerized agricultural system was conducted and its pilot phase is started in 2001. This is likely to benefit the sector by giving timely information. ( Agricultural development program ) Ethiopia faces many impediments which tend to strangle its development. In an interview, Michael Glantz, a political scientist working with the National Center for Atmospheric Research, says that if he had the liberty to add one more word to the title page of â€Å"Time’ magazine issue on Africa in 1984, he would say, â€Å" coup, corruption , onflict and climate’, are the main obstacles to development in Africa. Glantz Michael ) The same holds true for Ethiopia also. She is land locked in the horns of the African continent with two chronic enemies as her neighbors. Only 45% of the total land is arable and a meager 3% is irrigated. She does not have a port of her own, and the rainfall is totally unpredictable. There is no access to the vast seas or oceans. She is connected to the Red Sea through a neighboring country. The geographic position and the climate of Ethiopia is surely one of he biggest obstacles to the development of Ethiopia. Geography) Military aggressions have hit Ethiopia very hard. Ethiopia has to face it on two fronts, Eritrea in north and Somalia in south. Prolonged warfare with these nations, for many decades, has made a severe dent in the economy of the nation. Perhaps, this dent is permanent and irreparable. The country is already under immense debt pressure and there seems to be no end to the disputes with Eritrea. A report of International Monetary Fund suggests that if Ethiopia needs to maintain a growth level of 7% . Given the current state of affairs, this report raises serious doubts whether this is an achievable target or not. ( Andrews David, Erasmus Lodewyk Powell Robert ) Human mistakes, especially by the political leadership account for the third obstacle to the development of Ethiopia. The denial to accept the peace treaty with Eritrea, after signing it, is one example which proves this point. ( Ethiopia and Eritrea) All the attention, energy and finances have been focused on fights, coups and confrontations. The leadership as not advocated the uselessness of war, and concentrating on socio-economic issues instead. Conclusively it can be said that Ethiopia is cursed country in true sense, facing problems of famines, military confrontations geographic conditions and natural forces, which are colossal. This has already crippled the nations economy, and there seems to be no end to the misery of this nation. Elevation of Ethiopia from one of the poorest country to a middle level economy seems an uphill task. Will she be able to perform this task? Only time can tell. References http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107505.html http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2440093.stm http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/eritrea.htm http://www.et.undp.org/ethiopia/intro.htm#History http://www.et.undp.org/poverty/poverty.htm http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Obstacles_Development.html http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/ethindex.htm

Equity in Human Resource Management Essay -- Equity Theory, Need-Hiera

Equity in Human Resource Management Introduction The effective Human Resource Management in an organization requires an exceptional standard set for motivation, job design, reward system and equity. Nowadays, people are more willing to avoid unfair treatment in the workplace than any other aspect. The fundamental concept behind Equity is an attempt to balance what has been put in and taken out at the workplace with a feeling of justice being served. Unconsciously, values are assigned to many various contributions made to the organization, hence causing an air of misbalance in the environment. There has always been a disparity in the view on the desirability or the cost effectiveness of policy measures. The importance of equity or reducing discrimination has gained a lot of attention in the labour market (Milkovich, Newman & Ratnam, 2009). History The importance of Human Resource management is associated with the beginning of mankind. As the knowledge of survival had begun including safety, health, hunting and gathering, tribal leaders passed on the knowledge to their youth. However more advanced HRM functions were developed as early as 1000 B.C and 2000 B.C. Since the modern management theory took over, the working environment was transformed into a more friendly and safe work place. The workers were termed as most valuable resources. While some companies took the human side of employment seriously, there were others who did not find it mandatory. Hence they faced huge labor unions and factory shut downs (Henning, 2001). The first ever corporate employment department formed for labor concern was created by the B.F. Goodrich Company during 1900. In the 1960s and 1970s the federal government enforced fair treatment of... ...ir conflicts resolutions and motivations. Some measures which can help a human resource management department to impart equity would include but not limited to competitive salary, fringe benefits, career progression, gender, personal development, promotion etc are few variables which HRM require to look after to keep employees motivated. Through such measures, the companies can reduce the probability of employee dissatisfaction, non compliance with the standards and regulations and hence reduced chances of legal actions. It is essential that if organizations need to keep their employees motivated through managing equity, they are required to constantly monitor their employees through various surveys and research tools. Latest techniques emerging from the research may be applied on human resource so that they have direction and motivation for the organization. 

Cold environments may be developed Essay

Cold environments may be developed in a sustainable manner. To what extent do you agree with this statement? I disagree with this statement more than I agree with it. Cold environments in the world that were previously wilderness areas have undergone development, and nearly all of them have proved to be unsustainable. In the alpine areas, the mountains are a major magnet because of the scenery and the wide variety of winter sports that can take place there. The Alps have been developed as a tourist area. Although tourism benefits the area economically, it is socially and environmentally unsustainable. Tradition and culture has been eroded away because many young people now go down the mountains into urban areas in search of jobs. Even though the tourist industry has encouraged many young farmers to diversify out of rural and primary activities, many people still leave. Aside from that, the tourist industry brings with it unwanted pollution and litter and also causes footpath erosion. The tourist industry is also a potential hazard to the mountains and villages because the winter sports activities taking place there may cause avalanches. In the tundra or arctic regions, development has not been sustainable either, also both environmentally and socially. Gold, and particularly oil exploration and exploitation have scarred the fragile landscape. In 1968, the Trans-Alaskan pipeline was built from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez. Not only were there leakage problems of the oil pipeline associated with earthquakes and permafrost, but it also interfered with the migration of caribou on land and salmon in the rivers. Aside from that, in the 1989, there was the problem of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which polluted the ocean and killed hundreds of birds and marine wildlife. Oil exploration and the invasion of the Europeans into Inuit territory were also socially unsustainable. The traditional way of life was lost as many Inuits were forced to live the ‘white’ way and many Inuit children were taken from their parents and educated in missionary schools. Their traditional ways of hunting were also lost due to severe regulations on gun control and the introduction of currency into their simple economy. The latter was also the cause of excessive and unsustainable sealing and hunting in the tundra and arctic lands. Although the areas around the Southern Ocean have not been developed, vast quantities of natural fish, seal and whale resources have been taken out. On South Orkney Island, seals were completely depleted by 1800. Whaling began in the 1840s but was unsustainable as well, and ended in 1965 because stocks were exhausted. Fish stocks such as cod and krill have also become severely depleted in recent years. Although institutes such as the International Whaling Convention, the Marine Resources Institute and the CCAMLR were set up, illegal fishing and whaling have led to the depletion of natural resources. In Grytviken and Stromness, abandoned buildings have become an eyesore because they were not cleared away. Attempts at developing Antarctica have been made, mainly in the form of tourism. This is the only cold environment development that can be said to be sustainable. Strict IAATO guidelines on tourist behaviour, controlled numbers of tourists and the harsh climate of Antarctica have made the area difficult to develop. Scientific and research stations, although few, have contributed to waste generated in the area, along with footpath erosion. Most of the waste is shipped to the UK for processing, but what remains cannot decompose easily in the cold climate. Due to efforts of the Antarctic Treaty ratified in 1991 and much pressure from the environmental groups however, the Antarctic region has largely remained untouched. Where development takes place, it cannot be said to be sustainable, because changes have to be made to the area to accommodate people and people contribute to environmental degradation at the very least, even if great care is taken not to disturb or disrupt natural environments. The development of cold environments is mainly unsustainable, although tourism in Antarctica seems to be otherwise. Who knows, however, whether it will remain sustainable in the future because of increased tourism, or because of better technology to fuel mass tourism.

Racial ideology in the NBA Essay example - 1652 Words

Racial Ideology and White Privilege in the NBA For almost three-quarters of the year, the players of the NBA prance around the court and show off their various hard earned skills. Every season, thousands upon thousands of fans, young and old, rich and poor, come to be entertained by the best in the game on a multi-million dollar stage. Contrary to popular belief, the National Basketball Association is no longer all about competition and winning the championship, it has evolved to a whole other animal. The NBA is annually a multi-billion dollar operation, and continues to grow every day. Not only do they are they making money off the fans attending games, but now is deeply involved in endorsing a vast array of products. Today, the NBA†¦show more content†¦However, this would affect white players just as much if not more than players of color. Often times white players will make their childhood and growing up seem harsher than it actually was in order to gain more supporters. This is because of the natural curiosity found in humans, who see someone that looks like them, and wonder what their life would have been like had they taken a turn somewhere down the road and devoted their time elsewhere. This can be tied into white-privilege in the sense that white individuals do not see or comprehend the extent of favorable circumstances to which they receive. However, Peggy McIntosh (1988) believes that, â€Å"whites are carefully taught not to recognize white privilege, as males are taught not to recognize male privilege.† You can also see the concept of male privilege in the NBA in the sense that there are zero women, even though there are women perfectly capable of competing in the NBA. Women are confined to playing in their own league, which is paid considerably less and has a fraction of the audience and fan base. The modern day National Basketball Association has gone leaps and bounds from what it was a few decades ago, but still has a long road a head of it before all of the racial ideologies tied up in their business has absolved. This will continue well into the future, no matter what anyone says, however, it will continue to improve as long as people continue to inform each other. For instance, during the 13 seasonsShow MoreRelatedIdeology Bias Toward Society s Dominant Groups Ideology1464 Words   |  6 PagesIdeology Bias In society, our knowledge is often based on experiences and influences we gain over time. This could range from the teachers who taught us how to count when we were in grade school to culture and the values our family or friends embedded into our brain. Knowledge is a powerful aspect of human beings that can shape how we know the world and how the world is changing. But understanding how we gain our knowledge is crucial before we can use it as such a tool. 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Media In an era of global technology, instant news, infomercials, electronic town meetings, and â€Å"Made for TV Documentaries,† the borderlines between newsRead MoreThe Movie The Star Spangled Banner 1991 Words   |  8 Pagesnational anthem, it inspired many athletes to join his silent actions. Not only did the protests spread throughout the NFL, but athletes from professional women’s soccer, college sports, and high school sports have also knelt during the national anthem. NBA athletes are also using their platform and status to raise awareness about issues affecting minorities in the U.S. There have been singers who have decided to kneel while singing â€Å"The Star-Spangled Banner,† because they want to fight against injusticesRead MoreRace And Ethnicity, Racial, Ethnic, And Race1148 Words   |  5 PagesA persons racial views stem from a cluster of many various opinions related to one’s culture, religion, gender, ethnic, and race. This mindset is built off of ones delusions because there is no such thing as a pure race. So by someone gathering a conclusion from any of these personal characteristics is just absurd. However, race and ethnicity are also ideologies. The shape ways of seeing and understanding the world around us. Race and ethnicity can deem you as one belonging to a group, or as an outsider

Main Issues That Affect The Quality Of Access Education

This paper discusses five main issues that affect the quality of and access to education in developing countries, namely; economic barriers, conflict barriers, climate change barriers, gender barriers, and language barriers. Definitions of ‘education’ such as â€Å"the acquisition of the art of the utilisation of knowledge† (Whitehead, 1966), or â€Å"making available to each generation the organised knowledge of the past† (Good, 1959, p191), or â€Å"the means whereby one generation transmits the wisdom, knowledge and experience which prepares the next generation for life’s duties and pleasures† (Snelson, 1974, p1) might be correct, but are too broad and not relevant in the context of this paper. ‘Education’ in this paper is defined as â€Å"the systematic†¦show more content†¦When children complete their basic primary and secondary education it results in numerous benefits for the children as well as the society in gen eral. Studies show that completing a basic education reduces poverty, increases income by up to 10% per extra year of attending school, saves lives of children whose mothers have a secondary education, reduces the chances of getting HIV and Aids, and increases economic growth and GDP (Jalan Ravallion, 2000; UNESCO, 2011a). Almost 70 years after the UN’s declaration, and having invested billions of dollars in education, more than 59 million children of primary school age are not attending school and 883 million people over the age of 15 are illiterate (UNESCO, 2015; UNDP, 2015). In light of this, the UN set out the ‘Sustainable Development Goals’ in 2015 where one of the principle targets is that all children worldwide â€Å"complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education† by the year 2030 (UN, 2015, p17). 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Arthur Miller s Death Of A Salesman - 2019 Words

â€Å"Fake it ‘til you make it,† is a mantra that both inspires uncertain individuals to attempt something new and a battle cry for those who refuse to accept the reality of a situation. Whether it be in the acknowledgement that one needs help or that you shouldn’t have seventeen cats, the fear of hurt or loss is often too great to accept the cold, hard truth. Unfortunately, many are not alerted to the greater danger of avoiding personal growth and forming realistic, healthy relationships. Both Judith Guest and Arthur Miller use their respective literary works ‘Ordinary People’ and ‘Death of a Salesman’ to illustrate that not addressing who we are as individuals and remaining unaware of reality will only lead to unhappiness, dysfunction, and†¦show more content†¦This lack of awareness on Willy’s part that he was focusing on the wrong dream--the desire to make money--caused Willy intense displeasure in his work later in lif e. This misguided path to personal happiness not only interfered with Willy’s life decisions, but it drastically affected Biff and Happy’s perception of success because Willy did not stand up for what he truly believed. This is most easily seen when Biff comes home with a football and Willy--though he is fully aware that Biff stole the sports equipment--fails to warn Biff about the dire consequences of such actions and brushes the issue off. Time and time again, Willy ignores Biff’s record of thievery until he is informed that the police are after Biff for theft. â€Å"Shut up! He’s not stealing anything!† (51) Willy denies not only any wrongdoing on Biff and Happy’s part but as well as on his part as a parent, just as he did when Biff stole the football. â€Å"Loaded with it. Loaded! What is he stealing? He’s giving it back, isn’t he? Why is he stealing? What did I tell him? I never in my life told him anything but decent th ings.† (41) This animosity towards theft is countered by Willy’s earlier comment when he faced a scenario where Biff stole a ball from school and Willy somewhat willingly went along with the idea. â€Å"Willy, examining the new ball: Where’d you get a new ball? Biff: The coach told me to practice my passing. Willy: That so? And

Impact of AIDS on Sub-Saharan Africa’s Economy Free Essays

Sub-Saharan Africa is the part of the world most terribly influenced by AIDS.   By the end of 2004 it was estimated that twenty-six million inhabitants in Sub-Saharan Africa were suffering from AIDS. Approximately seven to eight per cent of the grown population is affected, with occurrence rates getting as high as forty per cent in a few countries. We will write a custom essay sample on Impact of AIDS on Sub-Saharan Africa’s Economy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Females are strangely infected, with adolescent girls five times more prone than teenage boys to catch AIDS. In 2004 only, two million people expired of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa. However the epidemic has far stretched from its peak, since infectivity rates are still exceeded casualties from AIDS. Due to the gap between infectivity and successive death, we have until now to see the full impact of AIDS on Sub-Saharan Africa’s society as a whole. There have been differing opinions over how AIDS has affected the economic future of the African continent. Mixed messages on the true economic repercussions of the spread of the disease have contributed to a limited response, despite the inclusion of combating AIDS in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). One of the least studied but most significant areas of the epidemic’s impact is rural agriculture. Though long de-prioritized, rural agriculture is a source of livelihood for millions on the African continent and is now again being perceived as a crucial contributor to economic growth and development by such organizations as the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). Hunger, food aid and agricultural subsidies are all key elements of the current discourse on Africa in policy circles and in the media, but few studies have assessed the impact of AIDS on agriculture to push for specific interventions to mitigate the impact of the epidemic on rural agriculture. This disease has affected millions of people and since many of them are farmers therefore it has indirectly affected agriculture also. Since agriculture is a major source of capital for individuals and the country therefore it has affected the economy of Africa also. It seems clear that such high levels of illness and mortality will severely hamper economic performance in the most heavily affected countries. Yet over the last decade, a number of macroeconomic studies have declared that AIDS is not having a significant impact on GDP growth. These analyses are important because they provide ammunition that allows statesmen and scholars to dismiss the epidemic as not worthy of action and funding. In circles of power around the world, it is money that drives policy initiatives. The claim that AIDS is not impacting economic performance speaks loudly and prevents aggressive intervention.( n5) This paper will start with an assessment of a number of the macroeconomic studies that aim to measure the impact of AIDS on GDP growth, and which contribute to the justification of a limited international response to the disease. Macroeconomic Analysis Of The Impact Of AIDS The assessments of the macroeconomic impact of AIDS have been largely dismissive due to the unique character of the epidemic. AIDS affects the poorest of the poor: those who are not recognized or measured by traditional macroeconomic indicators. (Ruxin, 2004) As a UN report on â€Å"The Impact of AIDS† notes, â€Å"those rural people whose activities are not counted by standard measurements of economic performance and productivity are among the most vulnerable to the impact of AIDS.†( Bloom,   Mahal, 1997, 108) By not fully accounting for the informal sector, the rural economy and small-scale agriculture are largely dismissed, and women, who play a large role in the informal economy and agricultural sector, are marginalized. While the macroeconomic studies assessing the impact of AIDS disregard them, in fact it is the poor, the rural and women who are most affected by the disease. After decades of neglect by governments and abandonment by structural adjustment programs, there is a renewed focus on agriculture by international organizations and groups such as the World Bank and NEPAD. Agriculture is once again being seen as a driving force for growth in Africa. The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) released in July 2003 states that â€Å"the high economic growth rates envisaged by NEPAD cannot be realized unless farm production is significantly increased. Higher output will directly reduce hunger and bring down the cost of food imports. It will also have wider economic benefits, from stimulating rural incomes to providing raw materials for African industry.†(Harsch, 2004, 13) However, the rural areas are where AIDS is having its most devastating impact. At a time when population growth is high relative to other emerging economies, the amount of arable land is stable, the quality of land is degrading, and output per hectare stagnant, the rural areas are under increased pressure. Adding the AIDS epidemic into an already precarious mix of factors forces the agricultural sector into a dangerous downward spiral and threatens hopes for economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa. Few of the macroeconomic studies specifically address rural livelihoods and agriculture. They also assess the impact of AIDS without acknowledging that, from an economic point of view, the primary impact of the disease manifests mainly among individual economic agents, i.e. individuals and households. (Booysen, Bachmann, 2002) As a result, these macroeconomic models often fail to allow for the effects of a number of important microeconomic impacts which are endogenous to such models. (Booysen, Bachmann, 2002) Though the death of an individual might only represent a minor change in GDP, the macroeconomists fail to understand the ripple effect chronic illness and death has on communities. The impoverishment of communities cascades upwards and impacts macroeconomic measures. The traditional macroeconomic research approach is not sufficient in the face of the widespread devastation of AIDS. Microeconomic Analysis Of The Impact Of AIDS It is vital for researchers to conduct microeconomic household-level studies on the impact of AIDS. Such analyses document the economic choices that households and individuals are forced to make in the face of the epidemic in terms of household composition, labor, productivity, savings and coping strategies. It is these behaviors that will inform observers of the real impact the epidemic is having on sub-Saharan Africa and will thus serve as the basis for understanding the effect of AIDS on families, communities and the nation. Rural Household Studies It is clear from existing microeconomic household-level analyses that AIDS is devastating and will continue to devastate Sub-Saharan Africa’s rural agricultural sector and, through it, undermines the agricultural and rural revival that many see as the basis of Africa’s recovery. As Carolyn Baylies notes, â€Å"AIDS is having a profound effect, undermining rural household production, contributing to declining agricultural output and affecting the very integrity of families and their sustainability as viable units.†(Baylies, 2002, 12) This paper will now delve into a number of the microeconomic studies, with a focus on rural agricultural household studies, to assess the house hold level impact of the epidemic and to investigate the effects that the macroeconomic analyses have largely missed. A 2002 household impact study conducted in South Africa by Frederick Booysen and Max Bachmann explores the impact of AIDS on families in the Free State province. Researchers note that deaths in the households due to AIDS mostly occurred in individuals in their 20s and 30s. A Rwandan study revealed that, for those that died, the average period of illness before death was 23 months: a long period during which care had to be provided and medicines sought. (Donovan, 2003) Household illness dramatically increases the dependency ratio in the home. Booysen and Bachmann note that the households affected by AIDS in fact have a smaller supply of labor than non-affected households, with a larger proportion of the household consisting of children and elderly persons. (Booysen, Bachmann, 2002) Furthermore, dependency is exacerbated by the fact that many individuals return to their rural homes to receive terminal care after becoming ill. (Jayne, 2002) The South African study also assesses the impact of AIDS on household income. The authors note that â€Å"per capita and adult equivalent income in affected households represents only between 50% and 60% of the levels of income in non-affected households.†(Booysen, Bachmann, 2002) This dramatic drop results not only from the loss of labor of the infected individual but also from the burden of care that falls on family members. Importantly, Booysen and Bachmann also explore the impact of the disease on expenditure levels. AIDS significantly alters the consumption patterns of households: â€Å"per capita and adult equivalent expenditure is between 60% and 70% of the levels of expenditure in non-affected households.† (Booysen, Bachmann, 2002) Notably, affected households spend less on food than non-affected households, which has a negative impact on the health of household members. How to cite Impact of AIDS on Sub-Saharan Africa’s Economy, Papers